Games - Education and Life Skills

Schiller and Homo Ludens

Game theory is a branch of mathematics that studies how rational agents make decisions in situations where their actions affect each other. Game theory can be used to model and analyze various phenomena in economics, business, politics, social sciences, and even biology. Here I will explain the basic concepts of game theory, give some examples of its applications, and discuss some of its limitations and challenges.

Game theory is based on the idea that any situation involving two or more players can be represented by a game, which consists of the following elements:

The players, who are the decision-makers in the game. They can be individuals, groups, firms, countries, or any other entities that have preferences and goals.
The strategies, which are the possible actions or choices that each player can take in the game. They can be simple or complex, deterministic or probabilistic, observable or hidden, etc.
The payoffs, which are the outcomes or consequences that each player receives as a result of their own and others’ actions. They can be measured by utility, money, satisfaction, or any other criteria that reflect the players’ preferences.
The rules, which specify how the game is played, such as the order of moves, the information available to each player, the constraints on the actions, etc.

A game can be represented in different ways, such as by a payoff matrix, a game tree, or a normal form. A payoff matrix shows the payoffs for each combination of strategies for two players, as in the following example of the prisoner’s dilemma game: Player 2 Cooperate Defect Player 1 Cooperate 3, 3 Defect 5, 0 1, 1

A game tree shows the sequence of moves and the payoffs for each possible outcome for two or more players, as in the following example of the game of chicken:

A normal form shows the strategies and the payoffs for each player in a table, as in the following example of the battle of the sexes game: B (Boxing) O (Opera) A (Boxing) 2, 1 0, 0 A (Opera) 0, 0 1, 2

The main goal of game theory is to find the solution or the equilibrium of a game, which is a situation where no player has an incentive to deviate from their chosen strategy, given the strategies of the other players. There are different types of equilibrium, depending on the assumptions and the properties of the game, such as:

Nash equilibrium, which is a strategy profile where no player can improve their payoff by unilaterally changing their strategy, regardless of the others’ strategies. For example, in the prisoner’s dilemma game, the Nash equilibrium is (Defect, Defect), where both players get 1 as their payoff.
Pareto optimal, which is a strategy profile where no player can improve their payoff without making another player worse off. For example, in the prisoner’s dilemma game, the Pareto optimal outcome is (Cooperate, Cooperate), where both players get 3 as their payoff.
Dominant strategy, which is a strategy that always gives a player the highest payoff, regardless of the others’ strategies. For example, in the prisoner’s dilemma game, Defect is a dominant strategy for both players, as it always gives them a higher payoff than Cooperate.
Mixed strategy, which is a probability distribution over the pure strategies, where a player randomizes their choice of strategy according to some probabilities. For example, in the game of chicken, a mixed strategy for each player is to choose Swerve with probability 0.5 and Straight with probability 0.5.

Game theory has many applications in various fields and disciplines, as it can help to understand, predict, and optimize the behavior and the outcomes of strategic interactions. Some examples of game theory applications are:

Economics: Game theory can be used to study the behavior and the outcomes of markets, firms, consumers, auctions, bargaining, contracts, etc. For example, game theory can explain why oligopolies tend to collude or compete, why auctions have different formats and rules, or why contracts have different clauses and incentives.
Business: Game theory can be used to design and evaluate the strategies and the decisions of managers, competitors, customers, suppliers, regulators, etc. For example, game theory can help to determine the optimal pricing, production, advertising, entry, exit, merger, acquisition, etc. of a firm in a competitive or a regulated market.
Politics: Game theory can be used to analyze the behavior and the outcomes of political actors, such as voters, candidates, parties, coalitions, governments, etc. For example, game theory can explain why voters may vote strategically or sincerely, why candidates may adopt different platforms or policies, or why governments may cooperate or conflict on various issues.
Social sciences: Game theory can be used to study the behavior and the outcomes of social interactions, such as cooperation, coordination, communication, trust, altruism, reciprocity, etc. For example, game theory can explain why people may cooperate or defect in public goods games, why people may coordinate or fail to coordinate in coordination games, or why people may communicate or miscommunicate in signaling games.
Biology: Game theory can be used to model and understand the behavior and the outcomes of biological phenomena, such as evolution, natural selection, adaptation, survival, reproduction, etc. For example, game theory can explain why animals may adopt different strategies or behaviors, such as aggression, cooperation, mimicry, etc. in different environments or situations.

Game theory, however, also has some limitations and challenges, as it relies on some assumptions and simplifications that may not always hold or apply in reality. Some of these limitations and challenges are:

Rationality: Game theory assumes that the players are rational, meaning that they have well-defined preferences, they can calculate and compare the payoffs of different strategies, and they choose the strategy that maximizes their payoff. However, in reality, the players may not be fully rational, as they may have incomplete or inconsistent preferences, they may make mistakes or errors in calculation or comparison, or they may be influenced by emotions, biases, or heuristics.
Common knowledge: Game theory assumes that the players have common knowledge, meaning that they know the rules, the strategies, and the payoffs of the game, and they know that the other players know them, and so on. However, in reality, the players may not have common knowledge, as they may have incomplete, imperfect, or asymmetric information, or they may have different beliefs or expectations about the game or the other players.
Equilibrium selection: Game theory often finds multiple equilibria for a game, meaning that there are more than one solution or outcome that satisfy the equilibrium condition. However, game theory does not always provide a clear or unique criterion for selecting among the multiple equilibria, which may depend on the context, the history, or the conventions of the game or the players.
Dynamic and complex games: Game theory often analyzes static and simple games, meaning that the game is played once and has a finite number of players, strategies, and payoffs. However, in reality, many games are dynamic and complex, meaning that the game is played repeatedly or sequentially, and has an infinite or a large number of players, strategies, and payoffs. These games pose more challenges and difficulties for game theory, as they may require more advanced tools and techniques, such as dynamic programming, repeated games, stochastic games, etc.

In conclusion, game theory is a powerful and versatile tool that can help to understand and analyze the strategic aspects of decision making in various situations and domains. Game theory can also help to design and optimize the strategies and the outcomes of the players, who may have similar, opposed, or mixed interests. However, game theory also has some limitations and challenges, as it may not always capture the reality or the complexity of the games or the players. Therefore, game theory should be used with caution and care, and should be complemented by other methods and perspectives.

Source: Conversation with Bing, 27/11/2023
(1) What is game theory and what are some of its applications?. https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/what-is-game-theory-and-w/.
(2) Game theory | Definition, Facts, & Examples | Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/science/game-theory.
(3) Game Theory – Investopedia. https://www.investopedia.com/terms/g/gametheory.asp.
(4) Game Theory Explained | American Experience | PBS. https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/nash-game/.
(5) How Game Theory Strategy Improves Decision Making – Investopedia. https://www.investopedia.com/articles/investing/111113/advanced-game-theory-strategies-decisionmaking.asp.